Psych Study Guide

HON 201 Exam 1 – Study Guide

History of Psychology / Psychology Today

1. Know the fields that have influenced psychology.

1. Philosophy
2. Physiology

1. Who were the early psychologists and what were their areas of research / expertise?

1. Wilhelm Wundt (German) “Founder of Psychology”

1. In 1879 he established the first formal laboratory for research in psychology
2. In 1881 he established the first journal devoted to psychology research
3. He was involved in multiple disciplines/control experiments

1. In particular, paranormal psychology
2. Critical thinker → introspection

1. Edward Titchener (Cornell professor)

1. Wundt’s student, quite pompous
2. Structuralism → the task of psychology is to analyze consciousness into its basic elements and investigate how these elements are related

1. Underlying structure of thought

1. Introspection technique → careful, systematic self-observation of one’s own conscious experience

1. There is one correct answer

1. Created a vacuum in the field of psychology

1. William James (philosopher) “Father of American Psychology”

1. Functionalism → based on the belief that psychology should investigate the function or purpose of consciousness, rather than its structure

1. Why we think/why we do the things we do

1. 1900s – primary & Secondary memory

1. Sigmund Freud

1. Psychodynamic/Psychoanalytic
2. Ideas of the unconscious → contains thoughts, memories and desires that are well below the surface of conscious awareness but that nonetheless exert great influence on behavior

1. Ideas are not falsifiable

1. Use of hypnosis to get ideas from dreams

1. Manifest → what the dream actually was
2. Latent content of dreams → symbolic meaning of a dream

1. John Watson

1. Behaviorism → theoretical orientation based on the premise that scientific psychology should study only observable behavior

1. Pavlov’s dogs

1. Psych Review editor → steered psychology toward behaviorism (late 1900s & early 2000s)

1. What are the goals of psychology?

1. The science that studies behavior and the physiological and cognitive processes that underlie behavior, and it is the profession that applies the accumulated knowledge of this science to practical problems

Psychological Methods

1. How are theories constructed? Hypotheses?

1. Theory → a system of interrelated ideas used to explain a set of observations
2. Hypothesis →tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables

1. Variables → any measurable conditions, events, characteristics or behaviors that are controlled or observed in a study
2. Operational definition → the actions or operations that will be used to measure or control a variable

1. What research methods are used by psychologists?

1. Research methods → consist of differing approaches to the observation, measurement, manipulation and control of variables in empirical studies

1. Experimental research methods and descriptive/correlational research methods

1. What are the different aspects of an experiment?

1. Experiment → a research method in which the investigator manipulates a variable under carefully controlled conditions and observes whether any changes occur in a second variable as a result

1. Purpose → find out whether changes in one variable (X) cause changes in another variable (Y) → how X affects Y

1. Independent variable (X) → a condition or event that an experimenter varies in order to see its impact on another variable
2. Dependent variable (Y) → the variable that is thought to be affected by manipulation of the independent variable

1. Groups

1. Experimental group → consists of the subjects who receive some special treatment in regard to the independent variable
2. Control group → consists of similar subjects whodo not receive the special treatment given to the experimental group

1. Extraneous variables → any variables other than the independent variable that seem likely to influence the dependent variable in a specific study
2. Random assignment → occurs when all subjects have an equal chance of being assigned to any group or condition in the study

1. Correlational

1. Correlation → exists when two variables are related to each other; correlation is not equivalent to causation

1. Positive → indicates that two variables co-vary (change together) in the same direction
2. Negative → indicates that two variables co-vary in the opposite direction
3. Correlation coefficient → a numerical index of the degree of relationship between two variables (+1, 0, -1)

1. The strength of a correlation depends only on the size of the coefficient

1. Observation

1. Naturalistic observation → a researcher engages in careful observation of behavior without intervening directly with the subjects

1. Reactivity → when a subject’s behavior is altered by the presence of an observer

1. Case study → in-depth investigation of an individual subject
2. Survey → use questionnaires or interviews to gather information about specific aspects of participants’ background, attitudes, beliefs or behavior

1. Replication → repetition of a study to see whether the earlier results are duplicated
2. Placebo effects → when participants’ expectations lead them to experience some change even though they receive empty, fake or ineffectual treatment
3. Experimenter bias → when a researcher’s expectations or preferences about the outcome of a study influence the results obtained

1. Double-blind procedure → neither subjects nor experimenters know which subjects are in the experimental or control groups

Neurons

1. Know the structure of the neuron.

1. Neurons → individual cells in the nervous system that receive, integrate and transmit information
2. Soma → cell body, contains the cell nucleus and much of the chemical machinery common to most cells
3. Dendrites → part of a neuron that are specialized to receive information
4. Axon → long, thin fiber that transmit signals away from the soma to other neurons or to muscles or glands
5. Myelin sheath → insulating material that encases some axons
6. Axon terminal → small knobs that secrets chemicals called neurotransmitters
7. Synapse → a junction where information is transmitted from one neuron to another
8. Glia → cells found throughout the nervous system that provide various types of support for neurons

1. Support nourishment to the neurons, help remove waste products and provide insulation (myelin sheath is a particular type of glial cell)

1. What are the different kinds of neurons?

1. Resting potential → stable, negative charge when the cell is inactive
2. Action potential (all or nothing) → a very brief shift in a neuron’s electrical charge that travels along an axon

1. Absolute refractory period → minimum length of time after an action potential during which another action potential cannot begin

1. How do neurons communicate with other neurons?

1. Neurotransmitters → chemicals that transmit information from one neuron to another

1. Excitatory → positive voltage shift that increase the likelihood that the postsynaptic neuron will fire action potentials
2. Inhibitory → negative voltage shift that decreases the likelihood that the postsynaptic neuron will fire action potentials
3. Reuptake – process in which neurotransmitters are sponged up from the synaptic cleft by the presynaptic membrane (recycle)

1. Distinguish between the sections of the nervous system.

1. Central nervous system

1. Brain (see below)
2. Spinal cord → connects the brain to the rest of the body

1. Peripheral nervous system → all the nervous that lie outside the brain and spinal cord

1. Somatic nervous system → made up of nerves that connect to voluntary skeletal muscles and to sensory receptions

1. Afferent nerves → axons that carry information inward to the central nervous system from the periphery of the body
2. Efferent nerves → axons that carry information outward from the central nervous system to the periphery of the body

1. Automatic nervous system → the nervous that connect to the heart, blood vessels, smooth muscles and glands

1. Sympathetic division → branch of the autonomic nervous system that mobilizes the body’s resources for emergencies
2. Parasympathetic division → brand that generally conserves bodily resources

1. Distinguish the endocrine system from the nervous system.

1. Endocrine → consists of glands that secrete chemicals into the bloodstream that help control bodily functions

1. Hormones → chemical substances released by the endocrine glands

Brain

1. Know the brain anatomy and how to describe different regions.

1. Hindbrain → includes the cerebellum and two structures found in the lower part of the brainstem: medulla and pons

1. Medulla → attaches to the spinal cord, controls largely unconscious but essential functions such as breathing, maintaining muscle tone and regulating circulation
2. Pons → includes a bridge of fibers that connects the brainstem with the cerebellum; also involved with sleep and arousal
3. Cerebellum → involved in the coordination of movement and critical to the sense of equilibrium/physical balance

1. Midbrain → lies between hindbrain and forebrain

1. Contains an area that is concerned with integrating sensory processes (vision and hearing)

1. Forebrain → largest and most complex region of the brain

1. Thalamus → all sensory information (except smell) must pass to get to the cerebral cortex
2. Hypothalamus → involved in the regulation of basic biological needs; control autonomic nervous system; fighting, fleeing, feeding and mating
3. Limbic system → loosely connected network of structures (seat of emotion)

1. Hippocampus → formation of new memory
2. Amygdala → emotional responses  

1. Cerebrum → responsible for complex mental activities, including learning, remembering, thinking and consciousness

1. Cerebral cortex →wrinkly surface of cerebrum

1. Understand hemispheric differences & how the hemispheres communicate.

1. Corpus callosum → major structure that connects the two cerebral hemispheres
2. Occipital lobe → primary visual cortex
3. Parietal lobe → primary somatosensory cortex, also involved in integrating visual input and monitoring the body’s position in space
4. Temporal lobe → primary auditory cortex
5. Frontal lobe → primary motor cortex

1. What is contralaterality? How does it work? Does it always hold true?

1. Each hemisphere’s primary connections are to the opposite side of the body

1. Exception: vision → both eyes deliver information to both hemispheres but determined by visual field

1. What is localization?

1. Localization of function

1. Lashely (the effects of damage to the brain are determined by the extent rather than the location of the damage)

1. What is plasticity?

1. The brain is flexible and constantly evolving; helps adapt to environments

1. What is the difference between Broca’s & Wernicke’s aphasias? (left hemisphere)

1. Borca’s area → problems with production of speech
2. Wernicke’s area → problems with the comprehension of language

1. What techniques are used to study the brain? Strengths / Weaknesses of each?

1. Lesion → destroying a specie of the brain
2. Electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB) → sending a weak electric current into a brain structure to activate it
3. Computerized tomography (CT) → computer-enhances X-ray of the brain structure
4. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) → uses magnetic fields, radio waves, and computerized enhancement to map out brain structure (3-D)
5. Positron emission tomography (PET) → use radioactive markers to map chemical activity in the brain over time
6. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) → monitor blood flow and oxygen consumption in the brain to identify areas of high activity

Sensation & Perception

1. Understand the basic physiology of the retina.

1. Lens → transparent eye structure that focuses the light rays falling on the retina
2. Pupil → the opening in the center of the iris that helps regulate the amount of light passing into the rear chamber of the eye
3. Retina → neural tissue lining the inside back surface of the eye; it absorbs light, processes images, and send visual information to the brain

1. Cones → specialized visual receptors that play a key role in daylight vision and color vision

1. Provide better visual acuity (sharpness and detail)
2. Concentrated most heavily in the center of the retina d quickly fall off in density toward its sides

1. Rods  → specialized visual receptors that play a key role in night vision and peripheral vision

1. Density of the rods is greatest just outside the fovea and gradually decreases towards the periphery of the retina

1. What are some important characteristics of saccades & fixations?

1. Saccades → jerky eye movement
2. Fixations → focusing on something

1. How does depth perception (monocular & binocular cues) work?

1. Depth perception → interpretation of visual cues that indicate how near or far away objects are

1. Binocular cues → clues about distance based on differing views of the two eyes

1. Retinal disparity → objects within 25 feet project images to slightly different locations on the right and left retinas, so the right and left eyes see slightly different views of the object

1. Monocular cues → clues about distance based on the image in either eye alone

1. Pictorial depth cues → cues about distance that can be given a flat picture

1. Linear perspective → parallel lines that run away from the viewer seem to get closer together
2. Texture gradient → as distance increase, a texture gradually becomes denser and less distinct
3. Interposition → the shapes of near objects overlap or mask those of more distant ones
4. Relative size → if separate objects are expected to be of the same size, the larger ones are seen as closer
5. Height in plane → near objects are low in the visual field; more distant ones are higher up
6. Light and shadow → patterns of light and dark suggest shadows that can create an impression of three-dimensional forms

1. Is perception learned? Innate?

1. Some fundamental visual perception abilities are innate, but visual experience is necessary to maintain and further develop them

1. What are Gestalt principles that contribute to perception & illusions?

1. Figure ground → dividing visual display into figure and ground
2. Proximity → things that are near one another seem to belong together
3. Closure → group elements to create a sense of closure or completeness
4. Similarity → group stimuli that are similar
5. Simplicity → people tend to group elements that combine to form a good picture
6. Continuity → people’s tendency to follow in whatever direction they’ve been led

1. What is Fechner’s Law?

1. See class notes

1. What does signal detection analysis contribute toward understanding of perception?

1. See class notes

1. What is the difference between bottom-up & top-down processing? Evidence?

1. Bottom-up processing → progression from individual elements to the whole
2. Top-down processing → a progression from the whole to the elements

Intelligence

1. What components make up traditional intelligence?

1. Verbal intelligence, practical intelligence, social intelligence
2. Analytical intelligence, creative intelligence, practical intelligence

1. Is intelligence unitary, made up of two components, or of multiple components?

1. See class notes

1. How do younger and older adults differ in terms of intelligence?

1. See class notes

1. What is emotional intelligence & how does it relate to traditional intelligence?

1. See class notes

1. How is IQ measured? What concepts are important when creating / using an IQ test?

1. IQ = (mental age/chronological age) x 100
2. Normal distribution → symmetrical bell-shaped curve that represents the pattern in which many characteristics are dispersed in the population
3. Reliability → measurement consistency of a test
4. Validity → ability of a test to measure what is was designed to measure

1. What evidence supports innate origins of intelligence? Learned aspects?

1. Heredity influence

1. Twin studies, adoption studies, heredity estimates

1. Environmental influence

1. Adoption studies, environmental deprivation and enrichment, flynn effect (generational changes)

1. Reaction range → genetically determined limits on IQ

1. How do people who have an extreme IQ score differ than others with normal scores?

1. See class notes; also socioeconomic disadvantage/heredity

Classical Conditioning

1. Understand the process (e.g., US, UR, NS, CS, & CR)

1. US (unconditioned stimulus) → stimulus that evokes an UR without previous conditioning
2. UR (unconditioned response) → an unlearned reaction to an US that occurs without previous conditioning
3. NS (neutral stimulus)
4. CS (conditioned stimulus) → a previously NS that has, through condition, acquired the capacity to evoke a CR
5. CR (conditioned response) → a learned reaction to a CS that occurs because of previous conditioning

1. Be able to apply the technique to examples

1. See class notes

1. What are some important factors that determine if classical conditioning will occur?

1. Stimulus contiguity → occur together in time and space
2. Stimuli that are novel, unusual or special intense to stand out

1. Understand the process of extinction.

1. Extinction → the gradual weakening and disappearance of a CR tendency

1. Spontaneous recovery → the reappearance of an extinguished response after a period of non-exposure to the CS

1. How is classical conditioning related to phobias? Drug use?

1. Phobias → irrational fears can be traced back to experiences that involve classical conditioning
2. Drug use → can lead to immune suppression; remember example about overdose and cocaine room

Operant Conditioning

1. What is the difference between reinforcement & punishment? Positive vs. negative?

1. Reinforcement → occurs when an event following a response increase an organism’s tendency to make that response

1. Primary reinforcers → events that are inherently reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs
2. Secondary reinforcers → events that acquire reinforcing qualities by being associated with primary reinforcers

1. Punishment → when an event following a response weakens the tendency to make that response
2. Positive → occurs when a response is strengthened because it is followed by the presentation of a rewarding stimulus
3. Negative → occurs when a response is strengthened because it is followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus

1. What is the difference between generalization & discrimination? Shaping & chaining?

1. Generalization → an organism’s responding to a stimuli other than the original stimulus used in conditioning
2. Discrimination → an organism’s lack of response to stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus used in conditioning
3. Shaping → the reinforcement of closer and closer approximations of a desired response
4. Chaining → involves one response leading to the occurrence or build up on of another response

1. Understand the schedules of reinforcement.

1. A specific pattern of presentation of reinforcers over time

1. Continuous reinforcement →when every instance of a designated response is reinforced
2. Intermittent reinforcement → when a designated response is reinforced only some of the time
3. Fixed-ratio schedule →the reinforce is given after a fixed number of nonreinforced responses (lower resistance to extinction; rapid responding; short pause after reinforcement; higher ratios generate higher response rates)
4. Variable-ratio schedule → reinforce is given after a variable number of nonreinfroced responses (higher resistance to extinction ; high, steady rate without pauses; higher ratios generate higher rates overall)
5. Fixed-interval schedule → the reinforce is given for the first response that occurs after a fixed time intervals has elapsed (lower resistance to extinction; long pause after reinforcement yields “scalloping” effect; shorter intervals generate higher response rates overall)
6. Variable-interval schedule → the reinforce is given for the first response after a variable time interval has elapsed (higher resistance to extinction ; low, steady rate without pauses; shorter intervals generate higher rates overall)

1. What are the limitations of operant conditioning?

1. There is only good or bad
2. Reinforcement is not automatic when favorable consequences follow a response